Art- Egyptian Essays - Amarna Period, Atenism, Akhenaten, Aten

Art- Egyptian Fragment Of a Wall Relief As I entered the upper Egyptian gallery at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology I noticed a women giving a lecture to a small group concerning some of the monuments in the gallery. Lucky enough, I got a chance to catch the end of her lecture, and coincidentally it was about this piece entitled Fragment of a Wall Relief. This particular piece is from the Amarna period or 18th dynasty of ancient Egypt, dating from about 1367-1350 BCE. I picked this piece specifically because of the period in which it derives. The armana period has boggled me ever since we learned about it in class. In this paper I hope to uncover the historical significance of this piece and how it relates to this most unusual period. The Fragment of a Wall Relief was presented free standing, but clamped to the floor with metal braces. I believe it stands at about seven and a half feet tall and about eight inches thick and is made out of quartzite. This monument is not placed behind glass or ropes, but simply placed in the middle of the floor for people to view from all sides. This was very surprising for me, not only due to the age of the monument but also it's state of preservation. I observed that at sometime this piece had been broken in two, and has since been repaired. The front Of this piece may be well preserved because it had been lying face down in the sand for quite some time before it had been excavated. This piece in general has been weathered due to sand and wind for some time, but again still is in good condition. This Fragment of a Wall Relief's depiction of the setting at hand is pretty simple. At the very top of this monument, in the upper scene is the god Aten, once the sun god Ra, is shown as a disc shaped object with it's rays shining downward. To either side of Aten are hieroglyphics, most likely stating the scene that's at hand. Atens' rays are shining downwards towards Akenaten and one of his daughters. Akenaten is shown with his hand raised towards Aten, holding some type of bowl. To the right of these two subjects are piled up offerings meant as gifts for the sun god. In the lower scene, again is Aten at the top, and according to the museum, Akenaten is offering a censure of burning incense. This part is unclear to me due to the state of the monument. In both scenes Aten and the hair and clothing of both subjects are sunken relief, which at one time would have been inlayed with glass. Also in both scenes Akenaten is represented with his arms and hands raised towards Atens rays. Aken aten is represented with profile head, frontal torso, and profile legs. In the top scene he seems to be wearing a kilt type garment and in the lower scene it's unclear the type of garment he's wearing but it seems to cover most of his body. Along the right hand side of the monument runs a vertical band containing various hieroglyphics and three sunken relief figures that end up breaking the band into three sections. At the bottom of this piece is the base of the monument, which is handled quite simply. The base is plain, there is nothing written on it, represented on it, it doesn't extend out in any direction. The only point of the base I believe is to raise the subject matter to eye level. Along the side edges are hieroglyphics representing a ruler of another time. This is a later addition to the piece by another artist at a different time, it is said that the piece would have been placed face down and would have served as a base most likely for a sphinx or other statue. The artist who created the Fragment of a Wall Relief, who is currently unknown, must have had a clear understanding of how line breaks up space. The artist uses line two divide the two scenes and also to create the base for the monument. Also, the horizontal line

Cause of Ceasars death essays

Cause of Ceasars death essays Causes of Julius Caesars Death Gaius Julius Caesar, a patrician and noble, became one of the most powerful men in Ancient Roman history. Caesar was a popular, and eventually became the people's hero. This wealth of power brought back images of the ruthless Roman monarchy, abolished centuries before, in 510 B.C. Caesar presided over the military, politics and religion; it allowed him to virtually control Rome. And, it was eventually Caesar's power, which led to his demise on the Ides of March in 44BC. Julius Caesar helped establish the vast Roman Empire but caused his assassination because of his power, and the control of politics in Rome. Caesar gained power in three main areas, which dominated Roman life. He acquired power in politics and the government, in religion, and in the military. Using his power in these posts, his established a form of rule through which he could control many aspects of Roman life. On July 25th, 46B.C., Julius Caesar secured the office of Dictator for ten years. It was here, that Caesar found his power to preside over others, and where he became passionately hated by the Roman ruling class. As dictator, Caesar had secured the power of an absolute ruler. Earlier that year, he had been given Censorial powers, as the 'Director Of Public Morals. Caesar wanted to make reforms to improve life in Rome. However, he needed the Senate's help to pass legislation. The Senate had been one of the main problems for Caesar's predecessors. They had obstructed the passage of laws, which would have benefited the state. However, Caesar was determined to not be presided over by the Senate. The civil war against Pompeii had taken a toll on the Senate. Many of Pompeiis supporters, who were Senators, had been killed in battle. In addition, Caesar had increased the number of Senators from five to six hundred, to about nine hundred. To fill the vacant seats, he selected the Senators from a range of places and occupatio...

Research proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Research Proposal Example The success stories of certain well-known multinational companies in China (facilitating growth in the nation) would serve as empirical evidences, whereby appropriate recommendations for the purpose of the desired research can be formulated (Bigler, 2001). The nations in the contemporary world always seek ways to experience growth in the long run. In early years, several economies had substantially progressed with the essence of capitalistic principles in business world, which primarily focused on various managerial methods that could help to enhance trade and commerce. However, since globalization, the degree of market competition has significantly increased in most of the nations. Without strategic management tools, companies in the current era will not be able to experience high level of business internationalization. This proves rationality of the dissertation as the primary focus is on the most required skills of strategic entrepreneurship in business, which if implemented, would surely enable companies to expand their businesses across the world. The important determinants that would help to better the open innovation, strategic assets and resource seeking activities in a firm would also be analyzed in the context of the paper. The worth of the paper is enhanced with incorporation of relevant case studies of certain multinational companies in China that empirically focus on the concerned research themes. Thus, information and analysis provided in the dissertation would help any modern corporation to successfully expand its business across the domestic boundaries. The entire research work would be accomplished on the basis of qualitative analysis. It is highly rational to utilize this method of research analysis as it is a highly flexible, superior and dynamic research approach. Unlike the case of quantitative research, qualitative research comprises a wider scope and scale of research work. The entire research

Qualitative Research in management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Qualitative Research in management - Essay Example This paper will begin with An Overview of Qualitative Research. There are generally two types of researches i-e., quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative research is structured methods aiming at quantifying the data using the statistical method. They designed to prove reliability, generalizability, and objectivity. Qualitative research on the other hand, is unstructured methods seeking to give insights and understanding of problems. These two types of research are based on different concept. For instance, qualitative research is based on social sciences trying to understand and explain behaviors in particular situations while quantitative research evolved in natural since seeking to find commonly laws, which show the relationship of cause and effect. Qualitative research is a method of social study that focuses on how people think, live, and behaves. It is used in different academic disciplines as well as in social science. In addition, it is also used to gain a depth und erstanding of people attitudes, culture, feelings, values and interests and their social reality as individuals or groups. Marshall and Rossman define qualitative research as â€Å"a form of social inquiry that focuses on the way people interpret and make sense of their experiences and the world in which they live. The decision to use qualitative or quantitative research depends on the nature of issue under investigation. For example, if research aims to investigate the effect of credit supply shocks on firms financial and investment decision, then quantitative research would be more appropriate.... Marshall and Rossman (1998) define qualitative research as â€Å"a form of social inquiry that focuses on the way people interpret and make sense of their experiences and the world in which they live. The decision to use qualitative or quantitative research depends on the nature of issue under investigation. For example, if research aims to investigate the effect of credit supply shocks on firms financial and investment decision, then quantitative research would be more appropriate. However, if the objective were to explore how people respond to government announcement of cutting jobs, then qualitative research would be the best in that case. Therefore, the question of which approach is good for the study depend on the nature of the subject. Although both qualitative and quantitative research has advantages and disadvantages but qualitative research is believed to provide very rich data for analysis. The study by Punch (2005) highlights that qualitative research has advantages of be ing explorative in nature. It is because it allows researchers to explore new ideas, concepts and get new insights. There is also consensus among researchers that it helps in gathering the data in natural and reliable setting, which is not possible in quantitative research. In addition, as qualitative research focus on individuals, group etc., therefore, it helps to gain detailed and complex information about the phenomena under study. It may be because of these advantages that lead researchers to pursue qualitative research especially in social science or when the subject of study is human being (Mack et al, 2005). As mentioned earlier, that qualitative research

The various characters in Of mice and men. Essay Example for Free

The various characters in Of mice and men. Essay Discuss the importance of dreams of the various characters in Of mice and men. Do any of these characters have a realistic opportunity to realise their dreams? Of mice and men is a novel written by John Steinbeck set in the 1930s. John Steinbeck was born on the 27th February 1902 in Salinas, California. Of mice and men mainly focuses on loneliness and isolation. I will have to consider the importance of dreams of various characters in Of mice and men and do they have a realistic opportunity to realise their dream. Many of the characters have dreams in this novel, big dreams, wild dreams all sorts of dreams but I am only going to talk about the following characters: George and Lennie, Curleys wife, and Candy. George and Lennie share a dream of settling in a farm house and looking after animals and doing what any other people would do. During the story their dream is also shared by candy known as the swamper. I think that if Lennie and George didnt have a dream, they wouldnt have had the enjoyable time in their lives that they had even though Lennie was a big problem to George. If they never shared the same dream, I think that George would have left Lennie when the first time Lennie caused a problem. But one reason that George continued to stay with Lennie is because George knew that Lennie on his own would get into trouble and eventually die. George also knows that if he leaves Lennie, he is going to become a lost and a awful person, George says I seen the guys that go around on the ranches alone. After along time they get mean. They get wantin to fight all the time. From this we know that George wouldnt want to leave Lennie because what could happen to him, he is scared of the bad things that could happen to him so he needs to have a companion, and that is one way to achieve the goal of their dream. Basically George realises from the beginning that their dream could come true, because from the point when George, Lennie and Candy decided how they can collect the money and then they are sorted, but there is a problem, it is Lennie, Lennie doesnt understand anything due to his mental immaturity and therefore he acts like a child. George is scared that Lennie will do something wrong, something that will ruin their dream to become a success. One thing that is interrupting Lennie from doing well is Curleys wife. At the end of the story, George, Lennie, and Candys dream is destroyed by Lennie because of his immaturity and thoughtlessness. With his own mind Lennie took the wrong path, by talking to Curleys wife and that ended up into a death and a ruined dream that will never come true. It was not her fault because she is already isolated by the other workers and obviously she would want to talk to someone. We know hat the dream is ruined. After her death is discovered by candy he tells George about it and when George goes to tell the other workers candy is left alone with Curleys wife, he says to the dead lady you god damn tramp,you done it, dint you? I spose youre glad. Everybody knowed youd mess things up. You wasnt no good. You aint no good now.you lousy tart. Candy lets out all his anger and says all these bad things to her even though she wasnt the person the ruined their dream, she was the means of their dream to be ruined. After letting all his anger out candy states I could of hoed in the garden and washed dishes for them guys, this is one major speech that indicates us that their dream is truly finished. Curleys wife has a big dream of becoming an movie star with a life of luxury. She is one of the main characters that suffers loneliness and isolation, her big dream is to go to Hollywood and become and actress, nevertheless her mother may have had stopped her from going and realising her dream to become an actress. Her dream is one big source that keeps her occupied at all times, and that is why she is still with Curley. She misleads herself and then could of never gone to Hollywood, she says could of went with shows. Her vision is to be famous, eye-catching, recognised and well known, I think she has a dream to keep her away from isolation and loneliness. The marriage between Curley and his wife, kept her realising and questioning her dream. If Curleys wife admitted to herself that she is a failure and hadnt an ounce of acting in her, she wouldnt of been able to hold her marriage with Curley any more because she always dreams that she will be an actor some day that it goes to an extent that it become a part of her normal character. When Lennie kills her, her dream is put to an end. Candy is one of the workers that was made a permanent residence on the ranch. Candy is known as the old swamper. He himself knows himself that he will be getting kicked out soon. I think that he knows that George and Lennie are good people so he wants to really share the same dream with them, this is because of his old age and I think that candy feels isolated because of his age difference from the other workers. He realises that their dream can come true if only Lennie doesnt do anything dumb which he does and destroys their dream.

Why History Is Important :: essays research papers

Why History is Important   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Study of history is important because we learn from our mistakes, we share a common experience with people that binds us together, our minds store our experiences, and society can build upon past accomplishments. The first, and most significant reason history is important is because we learn from our mistakes. If there were no history then everyone would make the same mistakes over and over. In any job, if you can avoid mistakes you or someone else made in the past then you would run a more efficient working place. An intelligent person would not make the mistakes themselves but learn from other people’s mistakes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second reason history is important is because we share a common experience which binds us together as a country, society, and people. We can relate with our neighbors, peers, or even someone off the street. We often share the same hardships or happiness as these other people. If we didn’t have history than we would not have any thing to share with one another. The third reason history is an important factor in our life is because our minds are store our experiences. Everyone is born with a part in the brain that stores all of the history that you see, hear, and feel. If we didn’t have history, it would be like having amnesia and we would not know what was what. For example, when we have a certain experience like going to the beach for the first time; it’s the first time you touch the sand, see waves crashing, or feel the cool salty breeze against your face. That is an experience that will stay with you for the rest of your life. If you didn’t have history or memory then every time you go somewhere it would be like the first time since you don’t remember, and you would not have experience in life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The fourth reason history is important is because society can build upon past accomplishments with out having to re-achieve them. We as people make inventions and discoveries. If there were no history then people would not be Why History Is Important :: essays research papers Why History is Important   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Study of history is important because we learn from our mistakes, we share a common experience with people that binds us together, our minds store our experiences, and society can build upon past accomplishments. The first, and most significant reason history is important is because we learn from our mistakes. If there were no history then everyone would make the same mistakes over and over. In any job, if you can avoid mistakes you or someone else made in the past then you would run a more efficient working place. An intelligent person would not make the mistakes themselves but learn from other people’s mistakes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second reason history is important is because we share a common experience which binds us together as a country, society, and people. We can relate with our neighbors, peers, or even someone off the street. We often share the same hardships or happiness as these other people. If we didn’t have history than we would not have any thing to share with one another. The third reason history is an important factor in our life is because our minds are store our experiences. Everyone is born with a part in the brain that stores all of the history that you see, hear, and feel. If we didn’t have history, it would be like having amnesia and we would not know what was what. For example, when we have a certain experience like going to the beach for the first time; it’s the first time you touch the sand, see waves crashing, or feel the cool salty breeze against your face. That is an experience that will stay with you for the rest of your life. If you didn’t have history or memory then every time you go somewhere it would be like the first time since you don’t remember, and you would not have experience in life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The fourth reason history is important is because society can build upon past accomplishments with out having to re-achieve them. We as people make inventions and discoveries. If there were no history then people would not be

Atmospheric Pollution

Firstly, we must question: How does air pollution occur? To understand this, one is required to recognise the earth's surroundings. Life is totally dependant upon the blanket of mixed gases referred to as ‘air' surrounding our planet earth. This atmosphere is, approximately, a five hundred kilometre thick1 composite layer of colourless, odourless gasses that surrounds the earth kept in place by gravitational forces. Due to its intangible form, it is often ignored by man, making it vulnerable and easily damaged (this fact being highlighted by a large number of disasters caused, effectively, by man). The political and scientific debate on the so called ‘Greenhouse Effect' is based on concern over increasing atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide resulting from combustion of fossil fuels and emissions of other ‘Greenhouse Gases' – such as methane (from decomposing waste), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrous oxides (NOx). The activities of homo sapiens have introduced these new chemicals into the atmosphere and disturbed the distribution of its natural constituents. At first, this was limited to the effect of the fireplace, but later, with the greatly expanded usage of coal, these effects grew more acute. And, after the Industrial Revolution, these effects were compounded. As will be made clear, this revolution reached such a point that consequences began to be regarded more than just an inevitable residue of industrialisation and the struggle for economic growth. 1.1 Secondly, in order to intertwine the above information with the issue at hand, it may be necessary to ask oneself, what is environmental law, who is using it and for what purposes? These questions are being posed, as it is imperative to understand the background of the subject, not just for this subtopic in environmental law, but any topic, before entering it in any depth. Environmental law is first and foremost, a combination of primary legislation2, secondary legislation3 (which will be explained in more depth throughout the project), judicial decisions, common law principles, European Community legislation4 – ‘which impose an obligation on members states to enact legislation to give effect to the terms of the Directive'5 which are transposed into national law (as regulations), European treaties and international law (found in treaties, conventions and protocols). 1.2 The foremost function of environmental law is not, as many would imagine, to completely eliminate pollution altogether, but rather, to allow, or balance pollution levels with the gains we, as a society receive from economic growth. This phenomenon, known most frequently as ‘sustainable development' is one that will be referred to time and time again in any environmental law topic. Sustainable development's widely accepted definition is to be found in the 1987 Bruntland Report – â€Å"Our Common Future† (the report for the World Commission on Environmental Development 1987). It states: ‘†¦development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs'. In layman terms, what this report was recommending, or advising the inhabitants of this earth to do, was to use our resources on the planet in such a manner, so as not to jeopardise the way in which it can be used by others in those years after us. A classic example highlighting the necessity of sustainable development is that of the Communist regimes, such in Poland, in which they favoured production and economic development over protection of the environment. In brief, economic growth will lead to changes in the environment. If this growth is not controlled/governed, it can lead to an ugly and dangerous environment. One could be as bold as to say that obviously, the overriding consideration of any commercial enterprise is the maintenance and expansion of profit. To achieve this, one tactic is to minimize costs and this can occur by reviewing methods of disposal of unwanted materials. If discharging these wastes into the atmosphere represents the cheapest way of accomplishing this, then the industry will have a strong inclination to adopt this strategy. The costs of disposal do not disappear when pollution is emitted into the atmosphere, and as has been discovered, the society will eventually end up paying far greater costs. Therefore, it is the governments of each nation must choose limits to benefit both the environment and economic growth. This is often referred to as ‘anthroprecantic'7 and most law is based on it. As it was eventually assessed (with regards to the situation in Poland) that their lack of concern for the environment in which they inhabited was, in effect, the reason for their poor economic advancement. It was also noted that their Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was less than those countries who followed the anthroprecantic system. This perhaps is the most precise example of how the environment plays such a big factor on our lives, not just for our health, but also for the development of our respective countries. (After all, it is the aspiration of each and every governing nation to become wealthy and prosperous – economic development is at the heart of each nation). In working towards sustainable development, whether in broad terms or looking at one particular aspect such as air quality, a number of basic concepts must guide action. These concepts have been clearly outlined in a number of governmental papers8. Within the United Kingdom's largely secular and pragmatic societ y, it seems inevitable that pollution is view in an economic context. 2.0 The industrial revolution was the main cause of such concern over the environment. Before this time, ‘environmental law in England and Wales was characterised by a parochial focus on localised pollution problems'9. Such problems date back to the early uses of coal in domestic fires. The production of fumes and particulates from fires caused pulmonary infections and related lung diseases. Notwithstanding this effect, coal continued to be used. In 1661, John Evelyn published his famous work on air pollution in city areas, Fumi Fugiumi, which not only outlined the problems that atmospheric pollution from smoke caused, but also, more importantly, tried to suggest methods by which the problem could be resolved. After this period, much legislation was passed addressing specific problems in this area of law, for example, atmospheric pollution from chemical industries and ‘unclean' modes of transport, water pollution and the regulation of statutory nuisance. 2.1 Very few areas of the United Kingdom are safe from air pollution. Pollution levels exceed Government health standards all over the country on many days every year, even in rural areas. It is difficult to assess exactly the impact of air pollution on public health. However the government itself stated that: â€Å"the Department of Health's latest assessment is that air pollution is at present responsible each year for several thousand advanced deaths; for ten to twenty thousand hospital admissions, and for many thousands of instances of illness, reduced activity, distress and discomfort†10. It was also assessed that short-term episodes cause between 12,700 and 19,500 premature deaths in the UK a year11. And three years prior to this, it was estimated12 that short-term pollution episodes were responsible for between 12,000 and 24,000 deaths per year. These figures have put new pressure on the Government to fully support the Road Traffic Reduction Bill13, from Cynog Dafis MP. Over 400 Members of Parliament are supporting the principles of the Bill, which requires the government to produce a national plan to cut road traffic from 1990 levels by 5% by the year 2005 and 10% by the year 2010. As can be imagined, road transport is a major source of air pollution in the UK. Five of the key pollutants are: particulates (fine dust and soot particles – PM), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), benzene and hydrocarbons (HCs). ‘After more than half a century of under-investment in Britain, roads are the most congested in Europe'14. However, knowing that transport is the cornerstone of modern society, yet it is responsible for poor air quality in many urban centres around the world, what is there that can be done about its damaging effect on our environment? There are increasing concerns about the impact of traffic exhaust emissions on the health of citizens who are exposed to the high concentrations of pollutants, plus the wider global implications. Legislation is helping clean up vehicles and fuel, but there is a significant time lag while the vehicle stock is being replaced. In the interim, mechanisms could to be introduced that accelerate the replacement of vehicles or improve the existing stock. 2.2 In the UK such a concept has taken the form of Low Emission Zones, which aim to restrict the use of the most polluting vehicles from specific areas in an urban environment. In Sweden, a similar concept has been in operation since 1996 whereby environmental standards are specified for heavy vehicles entering the central area of the main cities. The government has also recently set health standards for eight key pollutants. For these pollutants it has also set policy targets to be reached by the year 2005. Meeting these targets will need action locally, nationally and internationally. The Environment Act 1995 set up a system known as Local Air Quality Management through which local authorities will play a major part in reducing pollution levels. 2.3 If we are to meet the Government's targets for air pollution, then pollution from traffic must be cut drastically. There are two main ways to do this: Traffic reduction: cutting the volume of traffic on the roads. A number of environmental organisations are supporting the Road Traffic Reduction Act (which is now law) and the Road Traffic Reduction (UK Targets) Bill. This Bill, which is currently in Parliament as a Private Members Bill, aims to cut traffic levels nationally by 5% by 2005 and 10% by 2010. Greener cars: making sure that cars pollute as little as is possible. This is achieved through tightening engine technology and fuel quality standards. These standards are set at a European level15. 2.4 Although the above issues are seemingly simple, everyone does not welcome the manner in which they will be implemented. For example, There are a huge number in opposition to the government increasing taxes on fuel, and in one particular instance, it was stated by a former chairman of a lobbying institution, that ‘if Gordon Brown increases his fuel taxes, he will see the same situation as he saw in Autumn 2000' [where there was a great number of protests and havoc was caused around Britain]16 This threat was reinforced by a totally independent party, namely the Petrol Retailers Association, who warned ‘if taxes on motor fuels are increased, petrol forecourts will close'17. With statistics and threats such as those provided, it is difficult to advise what the government can do to aid the situation. The Liberal Democrat party also showed its urgency when it released a statement highlighting its concern that the Chancellor of the Exchequer must freeze fuel taxes in real terms for the lifetime of this Parliament. The party also called for a ‘sliding scale' of car tax emissions, so that consumers with polluting vehicles paying higher duties, and those with the most environmentally friendly, paying nothing18. And, in support of this plea, it was stated, by The Confederation of British Industry, that they would be ‘surprised and disappointed if there was a real increase in fuel duties' 2.5 The Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, who is behind many of the more noticeable environmental issues with regards to London stated in his manifesto that he aims to ‘put the environment at the heart of London government and provide for comprehensive environmental assessment and monitoring of all strategies which the Mayor is required to produce'19. In addition to this, the Mayor said that he will ‘aim to reduce road traffic by 15% by 2010'20. In favour of this aim, recent figures suggest that the UK's emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are being reduced21 and in addition, greenhouse gases are also being reduced. However, as stated previously, with the correction of specific pollution problems, comes an uplift of other hazards, such as in this case, the increase in carbon dioxide emissions and recent developments in the electricity market suggest problematic situations. 3.0 All aspects of environmental law have a domestic, European and international dimension to them. For example, if one lives in a country where there are dangerous waste materials being transported thorough, the government of transporting town will ensure that the standard of safety provided is of a standard expected on a international level. These precautions must be taken in any environmental situation as will be discovered through this assignment. The influence of international law on the regulation of air pollution has been significant. This may be in recognition of the fact that many of the problems caused by air pollution can have impacts across a large geographical area (and in many cases cause seriously global effects). There have been a number of areas where international law has helped to shape policies and rules on both a domestic and European level. Therefore, with regards to our particular topic, atmospheric pollution in England is regulated, not only by domestic bodies, but moreover, on a European and global level. The problems related to air pollution are by no means a new phenomenon. The prohibitions on certain activities producing smoke are probably the first instances of environment pollution legislation in the United Kingdom, and legislation dates back to 1863 with the Alkali Act, Public Health Act 1875 and 1936, Public Health (Smoke Abatement) Act 1926 and the Clean Air Act (CAA) 1956. The first modern piece of legislation combating air pollution, namely the Alkali Act, represented the culmination of a long period of dissatisfaction with environmental conditions, especially in London. For example, in 1819, an M.P had written, â€Å"[T]he volumes of smoke which issues from the furnaces on every side of the river Thames opposite my own house actually blacken every flower I have in my own garden in Whitehall†22 Until the CAA 1956 was introduced, the government of Britain has had a large amount of difficulty in tackling the problems of atmospheric pollution. Nowadays, the 3 main pollution controls in Britain (which will be clearly explained in detail in), are the Integrated Pollution Control (IPC)23 and Integrated Pollution and Control (IPPC), the Clean Air Act (CAA)24 1993 (a consolidation of the CAA 1956 and CAA 1968), and the controls relating to vehicle emissions. In addition to these, the Environmental Act 1995 25(EA 1995) naturally plays a large role, as it does in all environmental issues. 3.1 Having discussed the topic of environmental law, recapped on the history of atmospheric pollution, and established that there is a need for change, it is now necessary to discuss and evaluate the measures and changes which have been made, by domestic, European and international governments along with a vast number of very influential pressure groups. The main three are (mentioned in section ): a) The Integrated Pollution Control (IPC)26 and Integrated Pollution and Control (IPPC) license based controls relating to a range of highly polluting industries detailed in part1 of the Environmental Protection Act (EPA) 1990 and the Pollution Prevention Act (PPA) 1999. b) The criminal sanction based controls over the emission of smoke and other particulate matter from chimneys and furnaces detailed in the Clean Air Act (CAA) 1993. c) Controls relating to vehicle emissions. These controls encompass engine efficiency standards, the chemical composition of fuels, the mandatory use of catalytic converters, eco-taxes, price differentials between different types of fuel and the use of traffic management powers.27. The aforementioned controls are an enhancement made by the Environmental Act 1995. 3.2 The CAA 1993 concentrates on the control of emissions on smoke, dust and grit by means of criminal offences. The main offences are, emissions of dark smoke – from a chimney or from industrial premises, emissions of dust and grit from non-domestic furnaces, emissions of smoke from a chimney in a ‘Smoke Control Area' and various other offences relating to the installation of furnaces. Having stated earlier, atmospheric pollution is not merely a domestic issue, the involvement of Europe is particularly highlighted with the great many directives established. Since 1993, when the Maastricht Treaty on the European Union (EU) reformed the Treaty of Rome, Articles 130r – 130t of the EC Treaty have provided the legal basis for Community environmental law. Specifically, under Article 130r (2), environmental policy is guided by four principles: the precautionary, the polluter-pays principle, the integration principle, and the source principle. Moreover, the aforementioned Article further provides that a directive or regulation may include a ‘safeguard clause', which allows Member States to take any appropriate measure to protect the environment in case of emergency28. European Community (EC) measures to curb air pollution can be divided into different categories. Emissions from industrial plants – whereby the most important directive is the Large Combustion Plant Directive (88/609/EEC). In addition to this, Directives 89/369/EEC (dealing with emissions from incineration plants, and Directive 96/61/EC (IPPC) which was implemented into national law in 1999 are the most important directives regarding Emissions from industrial plants. Another category is that of Air pollution affecting the ozone layer and global warming in which EC regulations 3322/88, 591/91 and 549/91 which have banned CFCs and hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), respectively. Air quality standards have been inputted in Air Quality Framework Directives (96/62/EC) and 99/30/EC. As can be seen, the EC has implemented a large number of directives, however, what is not apparent from the information given, is which have been implemented in British national law. The EC also concentrates on vehicle emission standards, product quality standards and atmospheric pollution and waste reduction29. 4.0 As an evaluation, it is necessary to view the opinions and publications of specialised bodies that thrive to ever improve the environment, such as Green Peace and Friends of the Earth. However, when consulting such sources, one is required to acknowledging the great possibilities of biasness, in order to assess the contribution these measures and policies have made on the atmospheric pollution levels in Britain. Regarding one particular publication issued by Friends of the Earth, it was stated, that by using government data and methods to calculate an Air Quality Indicator for 1999 established that air quality is still ‘very poor'. The calculation shows, for key monitoring sites around Britain, the average number of days on which air pollution levels were above the Government's air quality standard. John Prescott called it a â€Å"key quality of life indicator†. It was also stated that road traffic is the major source of air pollution in the UK, which is responsible for 48% of UK emissions of nitrogen dioxide, 26% of particles, 2% of sulphur dioxide and 74% of carbon monoxide. Ozone is a secondary pollutant, produced by reactions between nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons. Road traffic is responsible for 38% of UK emissions of hydrocarbons. In this report, it was stated that the share of pollution produced by road traffic would be significantly higher in towns and cities. 4.1 The (New) Labour government took office in 1997 promising to be â€Å"the first truly green Government ever† and to put â€Å"concern for the environment at the heart of policy making†. There have been real achievements. In Labour's first term, both Tony Blair and John Prescott led international efforts to agree the Kyoto treaty to fight climate change. Labour committed the UK to cut emissions of carbon dioxide, the most significant climate changing gas, by 20% by 2010. Despite Tony Blair's very close relationship with the United States, he is still prepared to criticise President Bush for reneging on this treaty and attempting to undermine support for it from other states. Gordon Brown overcame considerable hostility from the business lobby to introduce the Climate Levy, which has begun to give industry clear incentives to cut emissions. Unfortunately, this is where achievements tend to become more difficult to establish. Early in Labour's first term, Chancellor Gordon Brown took important steps to implement the basic principle of green taxation, that tax should be raised on polluting and environmentally destructive behaviour, with the revenues used to pay for green initiatives and to cut taxes on employment. But New Labour has now simply surrendered to the fuel tax protestors, and abandoned the process of gradually raising fuel duty to ensure that the cost of motoring more accurately reflects the environmental damage it causes. And in his last Budget, Brown put employers' National Insurance contributions back up again, increasing the cost of labour and discouraging job creation.30 4.2 Ultimately, it appears that any capitalist economy must face the full scale of any atmospheric pollution problem presented by their production. As stated in 1.2, a capitalist economy focuses on survival of the fittest to ensure its own self preservation. Eventually, if the exhaustion of natural resources is approached, a capitalist economy will have to modify it's own behaviour to guarantee it's own survival, for it requires these resources to continue it's existence. It appears as though we are, environmentally, living in a vicious circle, whereby our preventative measures are preventing one particular problem, but at the same time, causing a problem of a different nature. It is only when that problem becomes apparent to public knowledge that it begins to be tackled. It appears, from methods undertaken before, for the protection of the environment that we may be preventing the condition of our earth from deteriorating to such a dismal point. Our structural interventions in capitalist economy do not appear without merit, albeit sometimes unnoticeable. 4.3 It was stated by Al Gore31 in his book ‘ Earth in the Balance': †Modern industrial civilisation is colliding violently with our planet's ecological system.' We inherited Eden and are leaving our children a depleted rubbish tip'32. However, on a global scale, this appears not to be, in my opinion, the case. Having researched this project for a number of months, one can honestly believe that environmentally, things are getting better. Although issues are still to be found on a daily basis in any newspaper one picks up, the fact remains that things are getting better – or are getting worse, at a slower rate than they were previously. 4.3 ‘Air pollution is not a new phenomenon that has been getting worse and worse, but an old phenomenon that has been getting better and better, leaving London cleaner than it has been since the Middle Ages.'33 Having evaluated governmental policies and researched air pollution, foremost in Britain, one would hope that this statement can now be conclusively agree, or disagreed with. Evidently, the system in which the British government takes actions often referred to as the ‘sectoral approach'34 means that whilst our nation is tackling one particular aspect of pollution, another problem would shift to another sector. ‘Britain has a problem with embarking upon the environmental issue on the whole'35. Therefore, in a brief summary of the above conclusions, it can be said that the environmental issues themselves are not seemingly the problem. Moreover, it is the funding of the implementation that causes the problems. Environmental issues are being discovered and publicised weekly. If the nation were to consider only issues relating to the environment (which it seems the Green Party and other such organisation are aiming for), there would be no advancement in other fields. Therefore, the question of sustainable development is highlighted again. How much should a nation consider the state of the environment, when clearly it needs to concentrate on the economy? As everyone is aware, the government obtains most of it's funding from taxes. If they were to continuously tax the nation, then no one would vote for them. Therefore, they have to bind their policies with one another and establish a sustainable method in which to provide both for the present, and the growing nation. Consequently, on the whole, the implementation of policies and legislation appear to be having a generally good effect on the atmospheric pollution level in Britain. One question remains, however, and that is, for how long will the preventative principle prevail, and will be sufficient in curbing an environmental hazard? In essence, it appears as though sustainable development is the mainframe of environmental and political ideology, and that government policy, and legislative implementation is delivering a sound task in the   field of atmospheric pollution in maintaining sustainable development. After all, it must be remembered, that no organisation in this world is flawless in its methods, and with it come faults, as is evident with the topic of atmospheric pollution. On the whole, policy and legislation appear to be achieving the ever fervent goal of sustainability.